Fragment Allocation In Distributed Database Design

Fragment Allocation In Distributed Database Design A database that consists of two or more data files located at different sites on a computer network. Because the database is distributed, different users can access it without interfering with one another. However, the DBMS must periodically synchronize the scattered databases to make sure that they all have consistent data, or in other words we can say that a distributed database is a database that is under the control of a central database management system (DBMS) in which storage devices are not all attached to a common CPU. It may be stored in multiple computers located in the same physical location, or may be dispersed over a network of interconnected computers. Collections of data (e.g. in a database) can be distributed across multiple physical locations. A distributed database can reside on network servers on the Internet, on corporate intranets or extranets, or on other company networks. Replication and distribution of databases improve database performance at end-user worksites. To ensure that the distributive databases are up to date and current, there are two processes: Replication. Duplication. Replication involves using specialized software that looks for changes in the distributive database. Once the changes have been identified, the replication process makes all the databases look the same. The replication process can be very complex and time consuming depending on the size and number of the distributive databases. This process can also require a lot of time and computer resources. Duplication on the other hand is not as complicated. It basically identifies one database as a master and then duplicates that database. The duplication process is normally done at a set time after hours. This is to ensure that each distributed location has the same data. In the duplication process, changes to the master database only are allowed. This is to ensure that local data will not be overwritten. Both of the processes can keep the data current in all distributive locations. Besides distributed database replication and fragmentation, there are many other distributed database design technologies. For example, local autonomy, synchronous and asynchronous distributed database technologies. These technologies implementation can and does depend on the needs of the business and the sensitivity/confidentiality of the data to be stored in the database, and hence the price the business is willing to spend on ensuring data security, consistency and integrity. Basic architecture A database User accesses the distributed database through: Local applications Applications which do not require data from other sites. Global applications Applications which do require data from other sites. A distributed database does not share main memory or disks. Main Features and Benefits of a Distributed System A common misconception among people when discussing distributed systems is that it is just another name for a network of computers. However, this overlooks an important distinction. A distributed system is built on top of a network and tries to hide the existence of multiple autonomous computers. It appears as a single entity providing the user with whatever services are required. A network is a medium for interconnecting entities (such as computers and devices) enabling the exchange of messages based on well-known protocols between these entities, which are explicitly addressable (using an IP address, for example). There are various types of distributed systems, such as Clusters [3], Grids [4], P2P (Peer-to-Peer) networks, distributed storage systems and so on. A cluster is a dedicated group of interconnected computers that appears as a single super-computer, generally used in high performance scientific engineering and business applications. A grid is a type of distributed system that enables coordinated sharing and aggregation of distributed, autonomous, heterogeneous resources based on usersà ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¾Ã‚ ¢ QoS (Quality of Service) requirements. Grids are commonly used to support applications emerging in the areas of e-Science and e-Business, which commonly involve geographically distributed communities of people who engage in collaborative activities to solve large scale problems and require sharing of various resources such as computers, data, applications and scientific instruments. P2P networks are decentralized distributed systems, which enable applications such as fil e-sharing, instant messaging, online multiuser gaming and content distribution over public networks. Distributed storage systems such as NFS (Network File System) provide users with a unified view of data stored on different file systems and computers which may be on the same or different networks. The main features of a distributed system include: Functional Separation: Based on the functionality/services provided, capability and purpose of each entity in the system. Inherent distribution: Entities such as information, people, and systems are inherently distributed. For example, different information is created and maintained by different people. This information could be generated, stored, analyzed and used by different systems or applications which may or may not be aware of the existence of the other entities in the system. Reliability: Long term data preservation and backup (replication) at different locations. Scalability: Addition of more resources to increase performance or availability. Economy: Sharing of resources by many entities to help reduce the cost of ownership. As a consequence of these features, the various entities in a distributed system can operate concurrently and possibly autonomously. Tasks are carried out independently and actions are co-ordinate at well-defined stages by exchanging messages. Also, entities are heterogeneous, and failures are independent. Generally, there is no single process, or entity, that has the knowledge of the entire state of the system. Various kinds of distributed systems operate today, each aimed at solving different kinds of problems. The challenges faced in building a distributed system vary depending on the requirements of the system. In general, however, most systems will need to handle the following issues: Heterogeneity: Various entities in the system must be able to interoperate with one another, despite differences in hardware architectures, operating systems, communication protocols, programming languages, software interfaces, security models, and data formats. Transparency: The entire system should appear as a single unit and the complexity and interactions between the components should be typically hidden from the end user. Fault tolerance and failure management: Failure of one or more components should not bring down the entire system, and should be isolated. Scalability: The system should work efficiently with increasing number of users and addition of a resource should enhance the performance of the system. Concurrency: Shared access to resources should be made possible. Openness and Extensibility: Interfaces should be cleanly separated and publicly available to enable easy extensions to existing components and add new components. Migration and load balancing: Allow the movement of tasks within a system without affecting the operation of users or applications, and distribute load among available resources for improving performance. Security: Access to resources should be secured to ensure only known users are able to perform allowed operations. Several software companies and research institutions have developed distributed computing technologies that support some or all of the features described above. Fragment Allocation in Distributed Database Design On a Wide Area Network (WAN), fragment allocation is a major issue in distributed database design since it concerns the overall performance of distributed database systems. Here we propose a simple and comprehensive model that reflects transaction behavior in distributed databases. Based on the model and transaction information, two Heuristic algorithms are developed to find a near-optimal allocation such that the total communication cost is minimized as much as possible. The results show that the fragment allocation found by the algorithms is close to being an optimal one. Some experiments were also conducted to verify that the cost formulas can truly reflect the communication cost in the real world. INTRODUCTION: Distributed database design involves the following interrelated issues: (1) How a global relation should be fragmented, (2) How many copies of a fragment should be replicated? (3) How fragments should be allocated to the sites of the communication network, (4) What the necessary information for fragmentation and allocation is. These issues complicate distributed database design. Even if each issue is considered individually, it is still an intractable problem. To simplify the overall problem, we address the fragment allocation issue only, assuming that all global relations have already been fragmented. Thus, the problem investigated here is determining the replicated number of each fragment and then finding a near-optimal allocation of all fragments, including The replicated ones, in a Wild Area Network (WAN) such that the total communication cost is minimized. For a read request issued by a transaction, it may be simple just to load the target fragment at the issuing site, or it may be a little complicated to load the target fragment from a remote site. A write request could be most complicated since a write propagation should be executed to maintain consistency among all the fragment copies if multiple fragment copies are spread throughout the network. The frequency of each request issued at the sites must also be considered in the allocation model. Since the behaviors of different transactions maybe result in different optimal fragment allocations, cost formulas should be derived to minimize the transaction cost according to the transaction information. Alchemi: An example distributed system In a typical corporate or academic environment there are many resources which are generally under-utilized for long periods of time. A à ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬Ãƒâ€¦Ã¢â‚¬Å"resourceà ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬Ãƒâ€šÃ‚  in this context means any entity that could be used to fulfill any user requirement; this includes compute power (CPU), data storage, applications, and services. An enterprise grid is a distributed system that dynamically aggregates and co-ordinates various resources within an organization and improves their utilization such that there is an overall increase in productivity for the users and processes. These benefits ultimately result in huge cost savings for the business, since they will not need to purchase expensive equipment for the purpose of running their high performance applications. The desirable features of an enterprise grid system are: Enabling efficient and optimal resource usage. Sharing of inter-organizational resources. Secure authentication and authorization of users. Security of stored data and programs. Secure communication. Centralized / semi-centralized control. Auditing. Enforcement of Quality of Service (QoS) and Service Level Agreements (SLA). Interoperability of different grids (and hence: the basis on open-standards). Support for transactional processes. Alchemi is an Enterprise Grid computing framework developed by researchers at the GRIDS Lab, in the Computer Science and Software Engineering Department at the University of Melbourne, Australia. It allows the user to aggregate the computing power of networked machines into a virtual supercomputer and develop applications to run on the Grid with no additional investment and no discernible impact on users. The main features offered by the Alchemi framework are: Virtualization of compute resources across the LAN / Internet. Ease of deployment and management. Object-oriented Grid thread programming model for grid application development. File-based Grid job model for grid-enabling legacy applications. Web services interface for interoperability with other grid middleware. Open-source .Net based, simple installation using Windows installers. Alchemi Grids follow the master-slave architecture, with the additional capability of Connecting multiple masters in a hierarchical or peer-to-peer fashion to provide Scalability of the system. An Alchemi grid has three types of components namely the Manager, the Executor, and the User Application itself. The Manager node is the master / controller whose main function is to service the user Requests for workload distribution. It receives a user request, authenticates the user, and distributes the workload across the various Executors that are connected to it. The Executor node is the one which actually performs the computation. Alchemi uses role based Security to authenticate users and authorize execution. A simple grid is created by Installing Executors on each machine that is to be part of the grid and linking them to a Central Manager Component. Advantages of distributed databases Management of distributed data with different levels of transparency. Increase reliability and availability. Easier expansion. Reflects organizational structure database fragments are located in the departments they relate to. Local autonomy a department can control the data about them (as they are the ones familiar with it.) Protection of valuable data if there were ever a catastrophic event such as a fire, all of the data would not be in one place, but distributed in multiple locations. Improved performance data is located near the site of greatest demand, and the database systems themselves are parallelized, allowing load on the databases to be balanced among servers. (A high load on one module of the database wont affect other modules of the database in a distributed database.) Economics it costs less to create a network of smaller computers with the power of a single large computer. Modularity systems can be modified, added and removed from the distributed database without affecting other modules (systems). Reliable transactions Due to replication of database. Hardware, Operating System, Network, Fragmentation, DBMS, Replication and Location Independence. Continuous operation. Distributed Query processing. Distributed Transaction management. Disadvantages of distributed databases Complexity extra work must be done by the DBAs to ensure that the distributed nature of the system is transparent. Extra work must also be done to maintain multiple disparate systems, instead of one big one. Extra database design work must also be done to account for the disconnected nature of the database for example, joins become prohibitively expensive when performed across multiple systems. Economics increased complexity and a more extensive infrastructure means extra labour costs. Security remote database fragments must be secured, and they are not centralized so the remote sites must be secured as well. The infrastructure must also be secured (e.g., by encrypting the network links between remote sites). Difficult to maintain integrity à ¢Ãƒ ¢Ã¢â‚¬Å¡Ã‚ ¬ in a distributed database, enforcing integrity over a network may require too much of the networks resources to be feasible. Inexperience distributed databases are difficult to work with, and as a young field there is not much readily available experience on proper practice. Lack of standards there are no tools or methodologies yet to help users convert a centralized DBMS into a distributed DBMS. Database design more complex besides of the normal difficulties, the design of a distributed database has to consider fragmentation of data, allocation of fragments to specific sites and data replication. Additional software is required. Operating System should support distributed environment. Concurrency control: it is a major issue. It is solved by locking and time stamping.

Plagiarism †Impact of Internet Essay

The advent of technology and internet in the last decade has opened up several avenues for unlimited information access. This along with the increasing academic pressures has led students to resort to plagiarism at an alarming rate (Elliot, 2004). The problem of plagiarism in the academic context can no longer be ignored as it is hampering the creativity and intellectual capacities of students. Overall, there has been a growing concern and an increase in awareness to find ways to counteract plagiarism. Thesis Problem Statement It has been said that internet hinders the creativity of students and encourages intellectual laziness. This paper intends to explore the negative effects of internet on the creative thinking abilities of the students and find some ways to counteract it. Internet and Plagiarism While the concept of plagiarism is not new, it is certainly more widespread now than before. Plagiarism basically means copying someone else’s work and claiming it as own without giving due credit to the original author (Jones, 2007). With the advent of technological era, information is easily accessible and the temptation to pass off someone else’s work as one’s own is high. There is no limit to the amount or type of information that is available on internet covering every subject imaginable. While this kind of information accessibility is advantageous in several ways and facilitates learning in some scenarios, it also leads to several problems with plagiarism especially in the academic context. Due to the availability and ease of access of the information without any restrictions, the effort to plagiarise is much less compared to earlier days when students had to go through a laborious process to get access to the relevant resources in order to copy. In this co ntext, the impact of internet on cheating can be considered extremely high and is known as digital or cyber plagiarism. Impact of internet According to the NEC Research Institute, there are more than 1.4 billion pages on the Internet with 25 new pages being added every second (Dyrli, 2000). Due to this huge database of information, it is very easy to find papers and information related to the academic subjects This has led to a rapid increase in the percentage of cheating both intentional and unintended by students. According to a study conducted by the Centre for Academic Integrity of Duke University, plagiarism due to internet has increased fourfold in the last 6 years (Vencat, 2006). Several other studies have substantiated this claim of rising incidents of plagiarism and the blurring of moral lines among students. Reasons and Effects of Plagiarism Before delving deep into the effects of plagiarism and ways to prevent it, it is important to understand the reasons for it. While the availability of information is certainly a forerunner, there are several other reasons which lead to it as well, the main one being the academic pressure to which students are subjected and the emphasis on good grades in today’s competitive world (Elliot, 2004). However, since the focus of this paper is digital plagiarism, the main reasons why internet encourages plagiarism are stated below: 1. Access to unlimited information through websites and search engines. 2. The ease with which content can be copy-pasted as compared to the earlier traditional methods of copying the material by hand. 3. Difficulty in detecting plagiarism due to the sheer amount of information against which a particular essay or paper needs to be compared. 4. Lack of standards and criteria making it difficult to pin down a work as exact plagiarism. Due to all the reasons mentioned above and many others, the incidents of cheating are steadily on the rise since the last decade. While a lone instance of plagiarism is negligible, massive increases such as these indicate a self-destructive trend among the student community and are becoming a cause of worry (Lathrop & Foss, 2000). Cheating students not only hamper their own intellectual growth, they also make it that much more difficult for honest students to get their due. Students may gain admission to courses which they do not deserve by using the grades obtained through wrongful means and this creates a permanent impact on the future of the society. This impact becomes especially dangerous if a cheating student decides to get into fields such as medicine, law etc. Also, if a particular student who plagiarises regularly receives good grades, it might compel others to do the same and hence the problem will continue to spread. Considering all these factors, it has become imperative for the academic community to take a strong stand against plagiarism. Avoiding Plagiarism The anti-plagiarism industry has been gaining more and more prominence in the last few years and educational institutions have started enforcing very strict guidelines to ensure that students do not cheat. Most of the institutions mete out severe punishments to offenders. Having said that, the subject of academic integrity is a debatable topic and since all the information available on internet is considered public, it is difficult to define intellectual property in a precise manner. Creating awareness is the first step towards preventing plagiarism and most institutions are taking steps to ensure awareness among students. There are also several resources available on the internet which give information about what constitutes plagiarism and what does not. Teachers are resorting to the use of plagiarism detection softwares to catch offenders. As mentioned before, there are several reasons which ultimately culminate in plagiarism. Apart from the ones mentioned in the previous section, there are also several internal factors which lead students to cheat. Procrastination, poor planning and time management, peer pressure, lack of subject knowledge etc are some of the contributing factors (Elliot, 2004). Sometimes, students are genuinely not aware of the intricacies of citing works and thereby make mistakes which constitute accidental or unintentional plagiarism. However, the fact that the plagiarism was unintentional does not make it acceptable and is still considered wrong. To avoid plagiarism, it is important to tackle the root of the issue. While the institute and teachers can play an important role in creating awareness and challenging assignments which encourage creative thinking, at the end of the day, the moral responsibility lies with the students and it is up to them to understand the consequences of cheating and make an effort consciously to avoid it (Martin, 1984). There are several ways in which students can contribute towards reducing such cases. It is important to create self-awareness by studying all the plagiarism related policies and literature provided by the university and also to understand the consequences of not following the rules as most of the universities subscribe to anti-plagiarism softwares lately. Along with policies, it is also important for students to understand the ethics behind the policies. There are several writing formats and referencing styles followed by universities which provide guidelines on giving credit to the original source and students should familiarize themselves with the ones accepted by their own institutes (Kirszner & Mandell, 2004). It is a good idea to ask for help whenever there is any confusion about citing. Also, it is of utmost importance for students to develop good time management skills and plan their coursework in a proper manner as lack of time is one of the main factors for cheating. A good internal schedule with enough time allocated for understanding the subject matter can go a long way in preventing the temptation to cheat. By gaining a good understanding of the subject matter, it is possible to analyse what has been written on the subject by others and extract the relevant data from it rather than blind copying. Last but not the least, it is extremely important to cite all the information which has been borrowed from other sources (Neville, 2007). Developing Creative Thinking During his days as the editor of the Forbes magazine, Malcolm Forbes once said that â€Å"Education’s purpose is to replace an empty mind with an open one†. This quote aptly describes the actual intent behind the design of academic subjects and the related coursework. It has been said that the ability to think and react logically is critical for a person’s personal as well as professional success. While the internet or any other literary resource might provide the information and the facts relevant to a coursework, they do not serve the actual purpose of a course. Most of the times, the aim of a coursework, be it an essay or a dissertation is to test the subject knowledge and critical thinking abilities of the student. Mere copy pasting does not in any way, reflect the thinking abilities of a student. The internet can be a powerful source of data and information as long as the student learns to process the data and understand the information independently.   Th e information available can be used more productively if the students relate it to the task at hand and build upon it. There are several ways to develop critical thinking abilities though it is not possible to simply learn them. Every assignment can be broken down into logical chunks which encourage thinking and analysing on the students’ part. Students can also participate in class room discussions to the maximum possible extent to understand various viewpoints and relate them to one’s own views. Participating in discussions and taking notes at appropriate places ensures that the original authors are always credited for their work. This also encourages asking questions and raising doubts as and when they arise thereby helping the students understand the subject better. Understanding the subject ensures that students do not blindly accept the facts presented by someone else without questioning the logic behind it or without asking for evidence (Martin, 1984).

Best Step to Lose Weight

There are some ways to make me to slimmer and more attractive. That is losing weight. All I have to do is follow three big steps below. For me to get skinner is doing more exercise. Some people might be afraid of taking this step, but physical exercise work well in decreasing pounds. Especially three steps are walking, swimming and do aerobic. First, swimming is a good sport for those who not only want to have weight loss but also need to improve their height. Swimming about one to two hours at weekend is enough, because your body may not be familiar with long practice yet.When you are walking, you can burn calories at the same time. Another good exercise to lose weight is aerobics, because it is a high energy activity that uses the entire muscle group in the body. The second step is avoiding food with fat and sugar. For example, instead of three large meals, eat five or six small means or snack a day, and next, because you do exercise, so you need energy to work out, so try to eat p rotein food like fish, egg and fat free or low-fat cheese and drink a lot of water.When you feel hungry, but you already had a meal, you can eat more vegetables and fruits to fulfill your hunger. Third, keep a diary, write down everything that you eat and every minute of exercise that do, then you’ll see how much healthier and stronger you have while you’ve lost weight, and set mini goals is important also. Instead of thinking that you need to lose 10 pounds, think that you want to lose 1 to 2 pounds this week. Or you can focus on non-pound goals like skipping after dinner snacks this week.In conclusion, is to be patient, which is very important. Many people give up their weight lost goals and exercise only within a week. If you stop trying, then nothing changes, and you will be as fatty as, or even fattier than before. Losing weight is not as difficult as is thought if you have enough patience to do exercise, go on a diet and keep your mind at east. Following the step s above, you will be a pro on losing weight and have a good body shape and healthy body.

How Women s Experiences Regarding Gender Inequality Essay

within Barriers and Bias. Accordingly, after giving birth, women see a 4% decrease in earnings per child. Meanwhile, men actually thrive in fatherhood, with an average 6% earnings increase. The confidence gap, which has been a discussion for years, contributes to this divide in the workforce. This inequality contributes to the damage that is committed. When men and women are treated differently, it is unethical, especially when they perform the same tasks, which require the application of the same skills, knowledge and experience. Gender inequality reflects a greater level of significance ethically as it influences women’s motivation to perform tasks in a proper way. Ashley Wietsma discusses how women’s experiences regarding gender inequality in the workplace are generally based on several factors including lower job security, lower wages compared to men, lack of respect, lack of benefits, or inadequate benefits, and vulnerability to sexual harassment and abuse (2). As a result, women face a lack of motivation and possess negative attitudes towards unethical gender discrimination. This can be viewed through the lens of justice and fairness, as well as rights because the ethical framework of justice and fairness states that every individual deserves to be treated as the one next to them unless proved not to be. Additio nally, the ethical framework of rights states that people have the right to freedom and the right to be treated fairly when they deserve to. Therefore,Show MoreRelatedGender Inequality And Idealized Beauty Standards1688 Words   |  7 Pagesworld continues to face is gender inequality and idealized beauty standards. When relating back to basic principles of gender inequality, women tend to be shown as inferior to men and specific occupations have been assigned gender roles. I agree with Naomi Wolf that gender inequality places more demands on both males and females and is a form of oppression, and her beliefs regarding ideal beauty. 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